PRME

The year 2017 saw the biggest increase in the number of billionaires in history, with one more billionaire every two days. There are now 2,043 dollar billionaires worldwide. Nine out of 10 are men. Billionaires also saw a huge increase in their wealth. This increase was enough to end extreme poverty seven times over. 82% of all of the growth in global wealth in the last year went to the top 1%, whereas the bottom 50% saw no increase at all. Living wages and decent work for the world’s workers are fundamental to ending today’s inequality crisis. All over the world, our economy of the 1% is built on the backs of low paid workers, often women, who are paid poverty wages and denied basic rights. This paper looks at growing extreme wealth, and those who work but live in poverty. It explores why this is happening, and gives recommendations on how it can be fixed.
SDG Topics: No Poverty / Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

The existing eco-label landscape is fragmented because of the presence of numerous labels with different standards and is a pre-competitive environment for firms to play in with many unanswered questions. Different standards – eco-labels are built around – have different effects on credibility and legitimacy, costs and benefits, and ability to achieve sustainability goals of eco-labeling. Focusing on eco-label standards and using a Hotelling-type horizontal differentiation model, we identify standards-specific issues for and characterize primary barriers to eco-labeling. Some of the major findings are as follows: (1) More rigorous environmental standards enforced by higher-integrity labels do not necessarily translate into higher selling prices; (2) Higher prices commanded by labeled products do not guarantee that a firm will derive higher profits from eco-labeling; (3) Auditing fees paid per product unit being inspected for ensuring compliance with an eco-label standard (rather than participation fees paid up front) is the primary de facto barrier to business involvement in eco-labeling; and (4) Customers׳ willingness to pay price premiums for eco-labeled products is not a sufficient condition to generate a premium in the market.
SDG Topics: Good Health & Wellbeing / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Climate Action / Life Below Water / Life On Land / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

The evidence on discrimination produced from the audit method is examined. Audits survey the average firm and not the marginal firm which determines the level of market discrimination. 
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

This publication identifies a range of concrete actions that Governments and international organizations can undertake to better assist private-sector efforts to promote effective conflict-sensitive business practices.
SDG Topics: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions / Partnerships for the Goals.

The year 2017 saw the biggest increase in the number of billionaires in history, with one more billionaire every two days. There are now 2,043 dollar billionaires worldwide. Nine out of 10 are men. Billionaires also saw a huge increase in their wealth. This increase was enough to end extreme poverty seven times over. 82% of all of the growth in global wealth in the last year went to the top 1%, whereas the bottom 50% saw no increase at all. Living wages and decent work for the world’s workers are fundamental to ending today’s inequality crisis. All over the world, our economy of the 1% is built on the backs of low paid workers, often women, who are paid poverty wages and denied basic rights. This paper looks at growing extreme wealth, and those who work but live in poverty. It explores why this is happening, and gives recommendations on how it can be fixed.
SDG Topics: No Poverty / Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

There is a growing academic and policy interest in the Third Sector and its potential impact on regional development. A key aspect of the Third Sector is its role in regional development through the promotion of social capital. However, there is considerable debate around the definition of the Third Sector that limits one's understanding of its impact. The paper first disentangles a number of ambiguities to clarify the distinctions between the concepts before then exploring the relationship between the regional development of social capital and the various aspects of the Third Sector. Finally, UK policy agendas and initiatives are considered in light of the earlier discussion.
SDG Topics: Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Partnerships for the Goals.

The existing eco-label landscape is fragmented because of the presence of numerous labels with different standards and is a pre-competitive environment for firms to play in with many unanswered questions. Different standards – eco-labels are built around – have different effects on credibility and legitimacy, costs and benefits, and ability to achieve sustainability goals of eco-labeling. Focusing on eco-label standards and using a Hotelling-type horizontal differentiation model, we identify standards-specific issues for and characterize primary barriers to eco-labeling. Some of the major findings are as follows: (1) More rigorous environmental standards enforced by higher-integrity labels do not necessarily translate into higher selling prices; (2) Higher prices commanded by labeled products do not guarantee that a firm will derive higher profits from eco-labeling; (3) Auditing fees paid per product unit being inspected for ensuring compliance with an eco-label standard (rather than participation fees paid up front) is the primary de facto barrier to business involvement in eco-labeling; and (4) Customers׳ willingness to pay price premiums for eco-labeled products is not a sufficient condition to generate a premium in the market.
SDG Topics: Good Health & Wellbeing / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Climate Action / Life Below Water / Life On Land / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

Rewards for environmental service provision, couched under market-based instruments, are widely touted in Australia as a means of improving natural resource management while empowering indigenous people. We document here the views of indigenous Australians in a community in Arnhem Land about their motivations for, and ways to provide, such services.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Life On Land / Partnerships for the Goals.

Rewards for environmental service provision, couched under market-based instruments, are widely touted in Australia as a means of improving natural resource management while empowering indigenous people. We document here the views of indigenous Australians in a community in Arnhem Land about their motivations for, and ways to provide, such services.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Life On Land / Partnerships for the Goals.

The year 2017 saw the biggest increase in the number of billionaires in history, with one more billionaire every two days. There are now 2,043 dollar billionaires worldwide. Nine out of 10 are men. Billionaires also saw a huge increase in their wealth. This increase was enough to end extreme poverty seven times over. 82% of all of the growth in global wealth in the last year went to the top 1%, whereas the bottom 50% saw no increase at all. Living wages and decent work for the world’s workers are fundamental to ending today’s inequality crisis. All over the world, our economy of the 1% is built on the backs of low paid workers, often women, who are paid poverty wages and denied basic rights. This paper looks at growing extreme wealth, and those who work but live in poverty. It explores why this is happening, and gives recommendations on how it can be fixed.
SDG Topics: No Poverty / Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

There is a growing academic and policy interest in the Third Sector and its potential impact on regional development. A key aspect of the Third Sector is its role in regional development through the promotion of social capital. However, there is considerable debate around the definition of the Third Sector that limits one's understanding of its impact. The paper first disentangles a number of ambiguities to clarify the distinctions between the concepts before then exploring the relationship between the regional development of social capital and the various aspects of the Third Sector. Finally, UK policy agendas and initiatives are considered in light of the earlier discussion.
SDG Topics: Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Partnerships for the Goals.

 In recent years a new context has emerged in Europe characterized by a larger growing Europe, the creation of a new European platform for social economy named ‘Social Economy Europe’ and an improvement in research, networks and initiatives in this area from certain European Institutions such as the European Social and Economic Committee. This paper focuses on recurrent, but needing clarification, topics such as the question of definitions, the national recognition of the concept of Social Economy and the size of this European third sector.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Partnerships for the Goals.

This article addresses issues of violence through the lens of issues of gender. It looks at the correlation between violence and the lack of women's meaningful involvement in the economy, and suggests that multinational corporations could play an important role in increasing women's opportunities, and thus decreasing violence.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions.

This article provides a snapshot of social and solidarity economy (SSE) institutions and activities in two differing regions of the world in order to reflect on how the SSE is being conceptualized and practised in varying contexts and cultures. The SSE is a growing social movement that includes a range of activities that share common values, including solidarity and mutual support, with a focus on community level development.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Partnerships for the Goals.

In support of the Council on Women and Girls, the Office of Management and Budget and the Economics and Statistics Administration within the Department of Commerce worked together to create this report, which for the first time pulls together information from across the Federal statistical agencies to compile baseline information on how women are faring in the United States today and how these trends have changed over time. This report provides a statistical picture of women in America in five critical areas: demographic and family changes, education, employment, health, and crime and violence. By presenting a quantitative snapshot of the well-being of American women based on Federal data, the report greatly enhances our understanding both of how far American women have come and the areas where there is still work to be done.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

Rewards for environmental service provision, couched under market-based instruments, are widely touted in Australia as a means of improving natural resource management while empowering indigenous people. We document here the views of indigenous Australians in a community in Arnhem Land about their motivations for, and ways to provide, such services.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Life On Land / Partnerships for the Goals.

The year 2017 saw the biggest increase in the number of billionaires in history, with one more billionaire every two days. There are now 2,043 dollar billionaires worldwide. Nine out of 10 are men. Billionaires also saw a huge increase in their wealth. This increase was enough to end extreme poverty seven times over. 82% of all of the growth in global wealth in the last year went to the top 1%, whereas the bottom 50% saw no increase at all. Living wages and decent work for the world’s workers are fundamental to ending today’s inequality crisis. All over the world, our economy of the 1% is built on the backs of low paid workers, often women, who are paid poverty wages and denied basic rights. This paper looks at growing extreme wealth, and those who work but live in poverty. It explores why this is happening, and gives recommendations on how it can be fixed.
SDG Topics: No Poverty / Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

In support of the Council on Women and Girls, the Office of Management and Budget and the Economics and Statistics Administration within the Department of Commerce worked together to create this report, which for the first time pulls together information from across the Federal statistical agencies to compile baseline information on how women are faring in the United States today and how these trends have changed over time. This report provides a statistical picture of women in America in five critical areas: demographic and family changes, education, employment, health, and crime and violence. By presenting a quantitative snapshot of the well-being of American women based on Federal data, the report greatly enhances our understanding both of how far American women have come and the areas where there is still work to be done.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

The evidence on discrimination produced from the audit method is examined. Audits survey the average firm and not the marginal firm which determines the level of market discrimination. 
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

This paper examines whether amnesty, a provision of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA), affected the labor market outcomes and wages of the legalized population. The analysis is carried out by gender to address male and female differences in labor supply and earnings.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities / Decent Work and Economic Growth.

This paper studies the life-cycle labor supply of three cohorts of American women, born in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. We focus on the increase in labor supply of mothers between the 1940s and 1950s cohorts. We construct a lifecycle model of female participation and savings, and calibrate the model to match the behavior of the middle cohort. We investigate which changes in the determinants of labor supply account for the increases in participation early in the life-cycle observed for the youngest cohort. A combination of a reduction in the cost of children alongside a reduction in the wage-gender gap is needed.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities / Decent Work and Economic Growth.

The careers of MBAs from a top US business school are studied to understand how career dynamics differ by gender. Although male and female MBAs have nearly identical earnings at the outset of their careers, their earnings soon diverge, with the male earnings advantage reaching almost 60 log points a decade after MBA completion. Three proximate factors account for the large and rising gender gap in earnings: differences in training prior to MBA graduation, differences in career interruptions, and differences in weekly hours. The greater career discontinuity and shorter work hours for female MBAs are largely associated with motherhood.
SDG Topics: Quality Education / Gender Equality.

Using a unique data source on academic economist labour market experiences, we explore gender, pay and promotions. In addition to earnings and productivity measures, we have information on outside offers and perceptions of discrimination. In contrast to the existing literature, we find both a gender promotions gap and a within-rank gender pay gap.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Reduced Inequalities.

We consider the gender pay gap in the United States. Both gender-specific factors, including gender differences in qualifications and discrimination, and overall wage structure, the rewards for skills and employment in particular sectors, importantly influence the gender pay gap.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

There is substantial racial and gender disparity in the American economy. As we will demonstrate, discriminatory treatment within the labor market is a major cause of this inequality. Yet, there appear to have been particular periods in which racial minorities, and then women, experienced substantial reductions in economic disparity and discrimination.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

The 1980’s were a decade of remarkable economic progress for women. After a decade of hovering in the low 60 percents, the ratio of female to male median hourly earnings took off in the 1980’s, increasing by more than one percentage point per year to reach 75 percent in 1991. In the following seven years improvements in the gender wage ratio decelerated to half a percentage point per year. Trends in male wage inequality, parallel the 1980’s surge in the gender wage ratio. In this paper, we argue that these trends are no coincidence: there is a close connection between distributional wage changes between men and women.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work and Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities.

A study finds that women, like men, experience most of the expected wage response to dollar fluctuations at times of job transitions, rather than when they remain with the same employer. In this context, dollar-depreciation periods, which are generally viewed as providing positive labor demand shocks, reduce the penalties that often are associated with a job change. Since women have higher job-changing rates than their male counterparts, these findings suggest that the average female worker has more sensitive wages than her male counterpart. 
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

This study proposes that feminist research be integrated into the field of comparative economic systems (CES) and that CES return to its traditional institutionalist methodologies to facilitate more complete analyses of economic systems and feminist alternatives to these systems and institutions. The study describes the evolution of CES, drawing attention to an increasing reliance on econometric modeling that reflects a shift in focus away from systems. An inventory of research on women and gender that has appeared in CES journals and textbooks finds little on topics other than formal labor markets in transition economies. 
SDG Topics: Quality Education / Gender Equality.

Standard Oaxaca decomposition techniques (Ronald L. Oaxaca 1973) are applied to 2SLS wage equations that account for potential endogeneity of intermittent labor market behavior. This decomposition allows the observed wage differential to be separated into differences in endowments and differences in how those endowments are treated in the labor market, as well as the identification of the contribution of intermittent behavior.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth.

This paper examines evidence from the Current Population Survey (CPS) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) on recent trends and current sources of the gender gap.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

Gender gaps in the workplace are widespread. One explanation for gender inequality stems from the effects of the interaction between competition and two pressure sources, namely, task stereotypes and time constraints. This study uses a laboratory experiment to find that the gender gap in performance under competition and preferences for competition can be partly explained by the differential responses of men and women to the above pressures. In particular, while women underperform the men in a high-pressure math- based tournament, women greatly increase their performance levels and their willingness to compete in a low-pressure verbal environment, such that they actually surpass the men.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality.

As the gender gap in pay between women and men has been narrowing, the 'family gap' in pay between mothers and non-mothers has been widening. One reason may be the institutional structure in the United States, which has emphasized equal pay and opportunity policies but not family policies, in contrast to other countries that have implemented both. Research suggests that maternity leave coverage, by raising women's retention after childbirth, also raises women's levels of work experience, job tenure, and pay.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities.

The year 2017 saw the biggest increase in the number of billionaires in history, with one more billionaire every two days. There are now 2,043 dollar billionaires worldwide. Nine out of 10 are men. Billionaires also saw a huge increase in their wealth. This increase was enough to end extreme poverty seven times over. 82% of all of the growth in global wealth in the last year went to the top 1%, whereas the bottom 50% saw no increase at all. Living wages and decent work for the world’s workers are fundamental to ending today’s inequality crisis. All over the world, our economy of the 1% is built on the backs of low paid workers, often women, who are paid poverty wages and denied basic rights. This paper looks at growing extreme wealth, and those who work but live in poverty. It explores why this is happening, and gives recommendations on how it can be fixed.
SDG Topics: No Poverty / Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

This paper examines whether amnesty, a provision of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA), affected the labor market outcomes and wages of the legalized population. The analysis is carried out by gender to address male and female differences in labor supply and earnings.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities / Decent Work and Economic Growth.

Standard Oaxaca decomposition techniques (Ronald L. Oaxaca 1973) are applied to 2SLS wage equations that account for potential endogeneity of intermittent labor market behavior. This decomposition allows the observed wage differential to be separated into differences in endowments and differences in how those endowments are treated in the labor market, as well as the identification of the contribution of intermittent behavior.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth.

This paper examines evidence from the Current Population Survey (CPS) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) on recent trends and current sources of the gender gap.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

As the gender gap in pay between women and men has been narrowing, the 'family gap' in pay between mothers and non-mothers has been widening. One reason may be the institutional structure in the United States, which has emphasized equal pay and opportunity policies but not family policies, in contrast to other countries that have implemented both. Research suggests that maternity leave coverage, by raising women's retention after childbirth, also raises women's levels of work experience, job tenure, and pay.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities.

The 1980’s were a decade of remarkable economic progress for women. After a decade of hovering in the low 60 percents, the ratio of female to male median hourly earnings took off in the 1980’s, increasing by more than one percentage point per year to reach 75 percent in 1991. In the following seven years improvements in the gender wage ratio decelerated to half a percentage point per year. Trends in male wage inequality, parallel the 1980’s surge in the gender wage ratio. In this paper, we argue that these trends are no coincidence: there is a close connection between distributional wage changes between men and women.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work and Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities.

In support of the Council on Women and Girls, the Office of Management and Budget and the Economics and Statistics Administration within the Department of Commerce worked together to create this report, which for the first time pulls together information from across the Federal statistical agencies to compile baseline information on how women are faring in the United States today and how these trends have changed over time. This report provides a statistical picture of women in America in five critical areas: demographic and family changes, education, employment, health, and crime and violence. By presenting a quantitative snapshot of the well-being of American women based on Federal data, the report greatly enhances our understanding both of how far American women have come and the areas where there is still work to be done.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

The year 2017 saw the biggest increase in the number of billionaires in history, with one more billionaire every two days. There are now 2,043 dollar billionaires worldwide. Nine out of 10 are men. Billionaires also saw a huge increase in their wealth. This increase was enough to end extreme poverty seven times over. 82% of all of the growth in global wealth in the last year went to the top 1%, whereas the bottom 50% saw no increase at all. Living wages and decent work for the world’s workers are fundamental to ending today’s inequality crisis. All over the world, our economy of the 1% is built on the backs of low paid workers, often women, who are paid poverty wages and denied basic rights. This paper looks at growing extreme wealth, and those who work but live in poverty. It explores why this is happening, and gives recommendations on how it can be fixed.
SDG Topics: No Poverty / Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

The existing eco-label landscape is fragmented because of the presence of numerous labels with different standards and is a pre-competitive environment for firms to play in with many unanswered questions. Different standards – eco-labels are built around – have different effects on credibility and legitimacy, costs and benefits, and ability to achieve sustainability goals of eco-labeling. Focusing on eco-label standards and using a Hotelling-type horizontal differentiation model, we identify standards-specific issues for and characterize primary barriers to eco-labeling. Some of the major findings are as follows: (1) More rigorous environmental standards enforced by higher-integrity labels do not necessarily translate into higher selling prices; (2) Higher prices commanded by labeled products do not guarantee that a firm will derive higher profits from eco-labeling; (3) Auditing fees paid per product unit being inspected for ensuring compliance with an eco-label standard (rather than participation fees paid up front) is the primary de facto barrier to business involvement in eco-labeling; and (4) Customers׳ willingness to pay price premiums for eco-labeled products is not a sufficient condition to generate a premium in the market.
SDG Topics: Good Health & Wellbeing / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Climate Action / Life Below Water / Life On Land / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

Rewards for environmental service provision, couched under market-based instruments, are widely touted in Australia as a means of improving natural resource management while empowering indigenous people. We document here the views of indigenous Australians in a community in Arnhem Land about their motivations for, and ways to provide, such services.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Life On Land / Partnerships for the Goals.

The gender gap in wealth at retirement is a cause for concern if it does not simply reflect individual choices based on heterogeneous preferences. This paper contributes to our understanding of this issue by asking whether the unexplained portion of the gap can be attributed to gender differences in risk preferences.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities

This paper studies the life-cycle labor supply of three cohorts of American women, born in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. We focus on the increase in labor supply of mothers between the 1940s and 1950s cohorts. We construct a lifecycle model of female participation and savings, and calibrate the model to match the behavior of the middle cohort. We investigate which changes in the determinants of labor supply account for the increases in participation early in the life-cycle observed for the youngest cohort. A combination of a reduction in the cost of children alongside a reduction in the wage-gender gap is needed.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities / Decent Work and Economic Growth.

This paper studies the impact of incentives on worker self-selection in a controlled laboratory experiment. Subjects face the choice between a fixed and a variable payment scheme. Depending on the treatment, the variable payment is a piece rate, a tournament, or a revenue-sharing scheme.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

It is often suggested that Economics is a good major for individuals interested in becoming business leaders. Despite this widespread assertion, little research has been conducted on this topic. Using the Standard and Poor (S&P) 500 companies, this article examines the validity of such a claim.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth.

Gender gaps in the workplace are widespread. One explanation for gender inequality stems from the effects of the interaction between competition and two pressure sources, namely, task stereotypes and time constraints. This study uses a laboratory experiment to find that the gender gap in performance under competition and preferences for competition can be partly explained by the differential responses of men and women to the above pressures. In particular, while women underperform the men in a high-pressure math- based tournament, women greatly increase their performance levels and their willingness to compete in a low-pressure verbal environment, such that they actually surpass the men.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality.

Rewards for environmental service provision, couched under market-based instruments, are widely touted in Australia as a means of improving natural resource management while empowering indigenous people. We document here the views of indigenous Australians in a community in Arnhem Land about their motivations for, and ways to provide, such services.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Life On Land / Partnerships for the Goals.

This article provides a snapshot of social and solidarity economy (SSE) institutions and activities in two differing regions of the world in order to reflect on how the SSE is being conceptualized and practised in varying contexts and cultures. The SSE is a growing social movement that includes a range of activities that share common values, including solidarity and mutual support, with a focus on community level development.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Partnerships for the Goals.

 In recent years a new context has emerged in Europe characterized by a larger growing Europe, the creation of a new European platform for social economy named ‘Social Economy Europe’ and an improvement in research, networks and initiatives in this area from certain European Institutions such as the European Social and Economic Committee. This paper focuses on recurrent, but needing clarification, topics such as the question of definitions, the national recognition of the concept of Social Economy and the size of this European third sector.
SDG Topics: Decent Work & Economic Growth / Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Reduced Inequalities / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Partnerships for the Goals.

There is a growing academic and policy interest in the Third Sector and its potential impact on regional development. A key aspect of the Third Sector is its role in regional development through the promotion of social capital. However, there is considerable debate around the definition of the Third Sector that limits one's understanding of its impact. The paper first disentangles a number of ambiguities to clarify the distinctions between the concepts before then exploring the relationship between the regional development of social capital and the various aspects of the Third Sector. Finally, UK policy agendas and initiatives are considered in light of the earlier discussion.
SDG Topics: Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Partnerships for the Goals.

This article explores the notion of social capital and the manner in which it is produced, reproduced and used locally within the social economy as part of the local economic development process. Findings are presented from a transnational European research project which examined the development of social enterprises and the social economy within different localities in order to seek to better understand their interrelationships with the local production and use of social capital. These findings emphasize the importance of contextualization in the study of local social capital and the importance of interpretative approaches for area-based policy development. 
SDG Topics: Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Partnerships for the Goals.

Current conceptualisations of social enterprise fail to fully satisfy the spirit of the movement which advances a narrative that social enterprises: are more like businesses than voluntary organisations; are more entrepreneurial than public service delivery; use business models but are not just in it for the money. A focus on the economic implies a business model where deep tensions lie. A focus on social capital offers a different frame of reference, yet both these conceptualisations fail to fully identify the phenomenon that is socialenterprise. The objective of this paper is to fill that gap.
SDG Topics: Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production.

This paper seeks to examine the discourses that influence policy and practice in social enterprises. In institutional circles, arguments are shaped by the desire to protect assets for the community, while entrepreneurial discourses favour a mixture of investment sources, surplus sharing and inclusive systems of governance. A critique is outlined that challenges policy-makers and academics to move beyond the heated debate on “business-like” activity through a deeper understanding of the social relations entered into (and created by) different social entrepreneurial activities. 
SDG Topics: Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Partnerships for the Goals.

This paper aims to assess the appropriateness of two contrasting models of governance to organisations within the social enterprise sector. In order to achieve this aim the paper draws on theories of for-profit governance, particularly the stewardship model, and theories of non-profit governance, particularly the democratic model. Theoretical insights from these literatures are then combined with the emerging literature on social enterprise. Two propositions result from this which posit that social enterprise, despite being located within the non-profit sector, may be more likely to exhibit for-profit forms of governance. 
SDG Topics: Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Partnerships for the Goals.

This study proposes that feminist research be integrated into the field of comparative economic systems (CES) and that CES return to its traditional institutionalist methodologies to facilitate more complete analyses of economic systems and feminist alternatives to these systems and institutions. The study describes the evolution of CES, drawing attention to an increasing reliance on econometric modeling that reflects a shift in focus away from systems. An inventory of research on women and gender that has appeared in CES journals and textbooks finds little on topics other than formal labor markets in transition economies. 
SDG Topics: Quality Education / Gender Equality.

In a commercial society, said Adam Smith, "every man becomes in some measure a merchant." If Smith is right, what does that mean for the character of the society? This paper addresses the character forming effects of the market-and, specifically its impact on the "virtues." 
SDG Topics: Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Sustainable Cities & Communities / Responsible Consumption & Production / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

This paper argues that feminist analysis is finally making an impact in the field of economics. It begins with an historical overview of the alternative theoretical approaches that have discussed women's issues, particularly since the 1950s and 1960s, and it argues that, during the 1980s and 1990s, these approaches have tended to converge, at least partially, through the use of gender as a central category of analysis.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality.

This article explores the relationships between post-Keynesian economics and feminist economics. It distinguishes three key concepts in each tradition that recommend serious attention in the other tradition: gender, the household and unpaid work and caring as key concepts in feminist economics; uncertainty, market power and endogenous dynamics as core concepts in postKeynesian economics. This article will show, with reference to the literature in which such crossfertilisation has been explored already, how both traditions can be enriched from a stronger mutual engagement.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

The year 2017 saw the biggest increase in the number of billionaires in history, with one more billionaire every two days. There are now 2,043 dollar billionaires worldwide. Nine out of 10 are men. Billionaires also saw a huge increase in their wealth. This increase was enough to end extreme poverty seven times over. 82% of all of the growth in global wealth in the last year went to the top 1%, whereas the bottom 50% saw no increase at all. Living wages and decent work for the world’s workers are fundamental to ending today’s inequality crisis. All over the world, our economy of the 1% is built on the backs of low paid workers, often women, who are paid poverty wages and denied basic rights. This paper looks at growing extreme wealth, and those who work but live in poverty. It explores why this is happening, and gives recommendations on how it can be fixed.
SDG Topics: No Poverty / Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities / Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.

This paper studies the impact of incentives on worker self-selection in a controlled laboratory experiment. Subjects face the choice between a fixed and a variable payment scheme. Depending on the treatment, the variable payment is a piece rate, a tournament, or a revenue-sharing scheme.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

Gender gaps in the workplace are widespread. One explanation for gender inequality stems from the effects of the interaction between competition and two pressure sources, namely, task stereotypes and time constraints. This study uses a laboratory experiment to find that the gender gap in performance under competition and preferences for competition can be partly explained by the differential responses of men and women to the above pressures. In particular, while women underperform the men in a high-pressure math- based tournament, women greatly increase their performance levels and their willingness to compete in a low-pressure verbal environment, such that they actually surpass the men.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality.

This article explores the relationships between post-Keynesian economics and feminist economics. It distinguishes three key concepts in each tradition that recommend serious attention in the other tradition: gender, the household and unpaid work and caring as key concepts in feminist economics; uncertainty, market power and endogenous dynamics as core concepts in postKeynesian economics. This article will show, with reference to the literature in which such crossfertilisation has been explored already, how both traditions can be enriched from a stronger mutual engagement.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

This paper studies the life-cycle labor supply of three cohorts of American women, born in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. We focus on the increase in labor supply of mothers between the 1940s and 1950s cohorts. We construct a lifecycle model of female participation and savings, and calibrate the model to match the behavior of the middle cohort. We investigate which changes in the determinants of labor supply account for the increases in participation early in the life-cycle observed for the youngest cohort. A combination of a reduction in the cost of children alongside a reduction in the wage-gender gap is needed.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities / Decent Work and Economic Growth.

This article addresses issues of violence through the lens of issues of gender. It looks at the correlation between violence and the lack of women's meaningful involvement in the economy, and suggests that multinational corporations could play an important role in increasing women's opportunities, and thus decreasing violence.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions.

A study finds that women, like men, experience most of the expected wage response to dollar fluctuations at times of job transitions, rather than when they remain with the same employer. In this context, dollar-depreciation periods, which are generally viewed as providing positive labor demand shocks, reduce the penalties that often are associated with a job change. Since women have higher job-changing rates than their male counterparts, these findings suggest that the average female worker has more sensitive wages than her male counterpart. 
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

We consider the gender pay gap in the United States. Both gender-specific factors, including gender differences in qualifications and discrimination, and overall wage structure, the rewards for skills and employment in particular sectors, importantly influence the gender pay gap.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

There is substantial racial and gender disparity in the American economy. As we will demonstrate, discriminatory treatment within the labor market is a major cause of this inequality. Yet, there appear to have been particular periods in which racial minorities, and then women, experienced substantial reductions in economic disparity and discrimination.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

The evidence on discrimination produced from the audit method is examined. Audits survey the average firm and not the marginal firm which determines the level of market discrimination. 
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

This paper argues that feminist analysis is finally making an impact in the field of economics. It begins with an historical overview of the alternative theoretical approaches that have discussed women's issues, particularly since the 1950s and 1960s, and it argues that, during the 1980s and 1990s, these approaches have tended to converge, at least partially, through the use of gender as a central category of analysis.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality.

This paper examines whether amnesty, a provision of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA), affected the labor market outcomes and wages of the legalized population. The analysis is carried out by gender to address male and female differences in labor supply and earnings.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities / Decent Work and Economic Growth.

The careers of MBAs from a top US business school are studied to understand how career dynamics differ by gender. Although male and female MBAs have nearly identical earnings at the outset of their careers, their earnings soon diverge, with the male earnings advantage reaching almost 60 log points a decade after MBA completion. Three proximate factors account for the large and rising gender gap in earnings: differences in training prior to MBA graduation, differences in career interruptions, and differences in weekly hours. The greater career discontinuity and shorter work hours for female MBAs are largely associated with motherhood.
SDG Topics: Quality Education / Gender Equality.

Using a unique data source on academic economist labour market experiences, we explore gender, pay and promotions. In addition to earnings and productivity measures, we have information on outside offers and perceptions of discrimination. In contrast to the existing literature, we find both a gender promotions gap and a within-rank gender pay gap.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure / Reduced Inequalities.

The 1980’s were a decade of remarkable economic progress for women. After a decade of hovering in the low 60 percents, the ratio of female to male median hourly earnings took off in the 1980’s, increasing by more than one percentage point per year to reach 75 percent in 1991. In the following seven years improvements in the gender wage ratio decelerated to half a percentage point per year. Trends in male wage inequality, parallel the 1980’s surge in the gender wage ratio. In this paper, we argue that these trends are no coincidence: there is a close connection between distributional wage changes between men and women.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work and Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities.

Standard Oaxaca decomposition techniques (Ronald L. Oaxaca 1973) are applied to 2SLS wage equations that account for potential endogeneity of intermittent labor market behavior. This decomposition allows the observed wage differential to be separated into differences in endowments and differences in how those endowments are treated in the labor market, as well as the identification of the contribution of intermittent behavior.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth.

This paper examines evidence from the Current Population Survey (CPS) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) on recent trends and current sources of the gender gap.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

In support of the Council on Women and Girls, the Office of Management and Budget and the Economics and Statistics Administration within the Department of Commerce worked together to create this report, which for the first time pulls together information from across the Federal statistical agencies to compile baseline information on how women are faring in the United States today and how these trends have changed over time. This report provides a statistical picture of women in America in five critical areas: demographic and family changes, education, employment, health, and crime and violence. By presenting a quantitative snapshot of the well-being of American women based on Federal data, the report greatly enhances our understanding both of how far American women have come and the areas where there is still work to be done.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Reduced Inequalities.

As the gender gap in pay between women and men has been narrowing, the 'family gap' in pay between mothers and non-mothers has been widening. One reason may be the institutional structure in the United States, which has emphasized equal pay and opportunity policies but not family policies, in contrast to other countries that have implemented both. Research suggests that maternity leave coverage, by raising women's retention after childbirth, also raises women's levels of work experience, job tenure, and pay.
SDG Topics: Gender Equality / Decent Work & Economic Growth / Reduced Inequalities.